24

Regulations Important to the Instrument Pilot

Study from a current set of rules.

The regulations described in this chapter are the basic rules you need to know to fly IFR in the U.S. Because the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is continually changing these regulations, it is imperative that you invest in a current copy of the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 14 (14 CFR) and keep that copy up to date at all times. 14 CFR, and its companion manual, the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) are available from a variety of publishers, as well as from the FAA website.

Terminology

Authorized Instructor

An authorized instructor is an instructor who has a valid ground instructor certificate or current flight instructor certificate with appropriate ratings issued by the Administrator; an instructor authorized under Part 121 (SFAR 58), Part 135, or Part 142 to give instruction under those parts; or any other person authorized by the Administrator (i.e., the FAA) to give instruction.

Airplane Flight Simulator

An airplane flight simulator uses a force cueing system.

An airplane flight simulator is a full-sized airplane cockpit replica of a specific type of airplane, or make, model and series of airplane; and includes the hardware and software necessary to represent the airplane in ground operations and in flight; and uses a force cueing system that provides cues at least equivalent to those provided by a 3° freedom of motion system; and uses a visual system with at least a 45° horizontal and 30° vertical visual field simultaneously for each pilot; and has been evaluated, qualified and approved by the Administrator.

Flight Training Device

A flight training device does not need a motion system or a visual system, but it does need to be evaluated, qualified and approved by the Administrator.

A flight training device is a full-sized replica of instruments, equipment, panels and controls of an airplane or rotorcraft, in an open flight deck area or in an enclosed cockpit, including the hardware and software for systems installed, necessary to simulate the aircraft in ground and flight operations. It does not require a motion system or a visual system, but it must be evaluated, qualified, and approved by the Administrator.

Aviation Training Device

BATDs are highly beneficial when used under an authorized instructor’s guidance for learning procedural tasks such as departures and arrivals, NAVAID tracking, holding pattern entries, instrument and missed approach procedures.

Basic and Advanced Aviation Training Devices (BATD, or AATD) are desktop computers used with external flight control hardware, an integrated training curriculum, and software to simulate an airplane type or make, model, and series. They are beneficial, when used under an authorized instructor’s guidance, for proficiency in procedural tasks such as departures and arrivals, NAVAID tracking, holding pattern entries, instrument and missed approach procedures. AC 61-136 suggests a schedule of training time on qualified basic or advanced ATDs, to reduce the total flight hours that would otherwise have to be completed in an aircraft to meet instrument rating requirements. Instrument students can log 10 hours towards their rating on a BATD with an authorized instructor.

Responsibility and Authority of the Pilot-in-Command (14 CFR Part 91)

As you complete each regulation, go through its review questions.

The pilot-in-command of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of that aircraft. In an in-flight emergency requiring immediate action, the pilot-in-command may deviate from the regulations to the extent required to meet the emergency. A written report of the deviation may be requested at a later date by the Administrator of the FAA.

What is IFR? (14 CFR Part 91)

IFR is simply any “non-VFR” situation, including flight above 18,000 feet.

Part 91: Basic VFR Weather Minimums

A flight in uncontrolled (Class G) airspace is not subject to control by ATC. This means that an instrument-rated pilot could fly in weather less than VFR minimum in Class G airspace without a flight plan on file, although of course it would not be wise to do so.

For weather reports, forecasts, and flight planning purposes, VFR, IFR, and

marginal VFR is defined as follows:

Part 91: Special VFR Weather Minimums

Except for airports where special VFR is prohibited (these are listed in section 3 of 14 CFR Part 91 Appendix D), a pilot operating within the lateral boundaries of the surface areas of Class B, C, D, or E airspace designated for an airport may be issued an ATC clearance to operate under special VFR. This reduces the normal requirements to flight visibility 1 SM and clear of clouds.

To take off or land at any airport where special VFR is permitted, the ground visibility at the airport must be at least 1 SM. If ground visibility is not reported, then the flight visibility during takeoff or landing must be at least 1 SM.

A non-instrument-rated pilot may be issued a special VFR clearance by day but, to operate under special VFR at night, you must be instrument-rated, instrument-current and in an IFR-equipped airplane.

When the visibility is less than 3 statute miles but not less than 1 statute mile during night hours, an airplane may be operated VFR clear of clouds if operated in an airport traffic pattern within one-half mile of the runway.

Am I Qualified to Fly IFR Today?(14 CFR Part 61)

Part 61: Requirements for Certificates, Ratings and Authorizations

To operate as pilot-in-command under instrument flight rules (IFR), or in weather conditions less than the minimums prescribed for VFR flight, you are required to hold an instrument rating. Because clearance is required to operate in Class A airspace, you must hold an instrument rating to do this.

Upon request from the FAA Administrator, an authorized representative of the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), or any federal, state, or local law enforcement officer, you must present your pilot certificate for inspection.

Part 61: Required Equipment for Practical Tests

You must supply an aircraft appropriate and qualified for the test you are about to take. You must have on board the equipment necessary to complete the test of your skills. You also must provide a view limiting device approved by both the flight test examiner and the Administrator.

Part 61: Pilot Logbooks

The aeronautical training and experience to meet the requirements for a certificate or rating, or the recent flight experience requirements, must be shown by a reliable record. The logging of other flight time is not required.

A pilot may log as instrument flight time only that time during which the pilot operates the aircraft solely by reference to instruments, under actual or simulated instrument flight conditions. Each entry must include:

• Total time of flight or flight lesson.
• The place, or points of departure, and arrival (except for simulated flight).
• Type and identification of aircraft, flight simulator, or flight training device.
• Type of pilot experience or training.
• Pilot in command or solo.
• Second in command.
• Flight instruction received from an authorized flight instructor.
• Instrument flight instruction from an authorized flight instructor.
• Pilot ground trainer instruction.
• Participating crew (for lighter than air aircraft).
• Other pilot time.
• Instruction in a flight simulator or in a flight training device.
• Conditions of flight.
• Day or night.
• Actual instrument time.
• Simulated instrument conditions in actual flight, in a flight simulator or a flight training device.
• The place and type of each instrument approach completed.
• The name of the safety pilot for each simulated instrument flight conducted.
• An instrument flight instructor may log as instrument time that time during which the pilot acts as instrument flight instructor in actual instrument weather conditions.
• All time logged as instruction must be certified by the authorized instructor from which it was received.

Part 61: Qualification and Approval of Flight Simulators and Flight Training Devices

Time flown in a flight simulator or flight training device may only be logged when under the direct supervision of a flight instructor.

If you intend to log simulator or flight training device time for the purposes of a rating or currency, the training device or simulator must be qualified and approved by the Administrator.

Part 61: Recent Flight Experience; Pilot-in-Command

General Experience

To act as pilot-in-command of an aircraft carrying passengers, you must have made 3 takeoffs and 3 landings as the sole manipulator of the flight controls in an aircraft in the preceding 90 days in an aircraft of the same category and class or, if a type-rating is required, of the same type. You can fly the aircraft for the purpose of achieving this currency even after your currency has expired, as long as you do not carry persons or property other than as necessary for the compliance with this rule. The takeoffs and landings may be performed in an approved flight simulator at a Part 142 training facility.

Night Experience

Night is defined as the period beginning 1 hour after sunset and ending 1 hour before sunrise (as published in the American Air Almanac).

If you intend to carry passengers at night, you must have made at least 3 takeoffs and 3 landings to a full-stop at night as the sole manipulator of the flight controls in the preceding 90 days in the category and class of aircraft to be used. The takeoffs and landings may be performed in an approved flight simulator at a Part 142 training facility.

Instrument Experience

To act as pilot-in-command under IFR, or in IMC, you must have, within the previous 6 calendar months, logged at least 6 instrument approaches under actual or simulated IFR conditions, as well as holding patterns and tracking and intercepting skills through the use of navigation systems.

To act as pilot-in-command under IFR, or in weather conditions less than the minimums prescribed for VFR, you must have, within the previous 6 calendar months, logged at least 6 instrument approaches under actual or simulated IFR conditions, as well as holding patterns and tracking and intercepting through the use of navigation systems. The approaches may have been in either an aircraft or a simulator.

If the above conditions cannot be met, an alternative way to remain current for IFR is to pass an instrument proficiency check (IPC) in the category of aircraft involved. This will be conducted by an FAA inspector, an FAA-designated examiner, or a certificated instrument flight instructor (CFII). An instrument proficiency check qualifies you as current for IFR flight for the next 6 months. You can, of course, submit yourself to an instrument proficiency check at any time.

Part 61: Flight Instruction; Simulated Instrument Flight and Certain Flight Tests

To operate in simulated instrument flight (under the hood), you must have a safety pilot occupying the other control seat. The safety pilot must possess at least a private pilot certificate with category and class ratings appropriate to the aircraft being flown. The safety pilot must have adequate vision forward and to either side of the aircraft, or vision must be complemented by another competent observer in the aircraft. Additionally, the aircraft must be equipped with functioning dual controls. However, the safety pilot is permitted to make a determination that a single, throw-over control is adequate, provided certain conditions are met.

Part 61: Airplane Rating; Aeronautical Experience

If you hold a Commercial Pilot Certificate, you may carry passengers for hire. If you hold a Commercial Pilot Certificate, but not an instrument rating, then you may not carry passengers for hire in airplanes on cross-country flights of more than 50 NM or at night.

Is the Airplane Suitable for IFR?

Part 91: Civil Aircraft Airworthiness

You shall not operate an aircraft that is not in an airworthy condition. As pilot-in-command, you are responsible for determining this. You should discontinue a flight when unairworthy mechanical, structural or electrical conditions occur.

Inspections

You may not operate an airplane unless within the preceding 12 calendar months it has had either:

• an annual inspection; or
• an inspection for the issuance of an airworthiness certificate.

As a general rule, you may not operate an aircraft carrying persons for hire, or give flight instruction for hire, unless within the preceding 100 hours the aircraft has received either:

• an annual inspection; or
• an inspection for the issuance of an airworthiness certificate; or
• an one-hundred-hour inspection.

The annual inspection is required, and is the normal inspection that is done during the life of the airplane following the initial airworthiness inspection. With FAA approval, a series of progressive checks through the year may replace the annual/one-hundred-hour inspections. People who own their own airplanes and operate them privately, and not for hire, typically do not have one-hundred-hour inspections done.

Part 91: Certifications Required

The aircraft should carry within it:

1.the current airworthiness certificate; and

2.an effective registration certificate.

Part 91: Civil Aircraft Flight Manual, Marking,and Placard Requirements

An FCC radio station license is also required if the airplane is flown outside of the U.S., according to ICAO rules.

You must operate within the limitations specified in the approved Flight Manual, on markings and placards, or as otherwise prescribed. Within the aircraft, there should be an approved Flight Manual or Pilot Operating Handbook (and this will include weight-and-balance information).

Note. The required documents can be remembered using the word AROW:

A airworthiness certificate;

R registration certificate;

O operating limitations (Flight Manual, POH, placards, etc.);

W weight-and-balance information (in the Flight Manual, POH, or separate).

Part 91: Instrument and Equipment Requirements

Powered civil aircraft with a standard category United States airworthiness certificate must satisfy the following instrument and equipment requirements:

VFR by Day

• Airspeed indicator.
• Altimeter.
• Magnetic direction indicator (magnetic compass).
• Tachometer for each engine.
• Oil pressure gauge for each engine using pressure system.
• Temperature gauge for each liquid-cooled engine.
• Oil temperature gauge for each air-cooled engine.
• Manifold pressure gauge for each altitude engine.
• Fuel gauge indicating the quantity of fuel in each tank.
• Landing gear position indicator (for retractables).
• Approved flotation gear for each occupant, and at least one pyrotechnic signaling device (if aircraft is operated for hire over water beyond the power-off gliding distance from shore).
• Approved safety belts for all occupants two years or older.
• Approved shoulder harness for each front seat (for small civil airplanes manufactured after July 18, 1978).

VFR by Night

A pilot may operate at night without anti-collision lights if that pilot determines that they must be turned off for safety reasons. If the anti-collision lights fail, the pilot may continue the flight to an airport where repairs can be made.

As above, plus:

• Approved position lights.
• An approved anti-collision light (aviation red or aviation white).
• At least one electric landing light (if the airplane is operated for hire).
• An adequate source of electrical energy for all installed electric and radio equipment.
• One spare set of fuses, or three spare fuses of each kind required.

IFR

As above (for day or night flight as appropriate), plus:

• A two-way radio communications system and navigation equipment appropriate to the ground facilities to be used (including DME for all flights at and above 24,000 feet MSL within the 50 states and the District of Columbia for which VOR is required — these altitudes are, of course, within Class A airspace, and IFR operations are therefore required at all times).
• A gyroscopic rate-of-turn indicator (turn coordinator or turn-and-balance indicator).
• A slip-skid indicator (balance ball).
• A sensitive altimeter, adjustable for barometric pressure.
• A clock displaying hours, minutes, and seconds with a sweep second pointer or digital presentation.
• Gyroscopic bank and pitch indicator (attitude indicator or artificial horizon).
• Gyroscopic direction indicator (heading indicator).

Part 91: Operations in Class B Airspace

To operate in Class B airspace, you require the following communications and navigation equipment:

• An operable VOR receiver (for IFR operations, but not required for VFR operations).
• An operable two-way radio capable of communications with ATC.
• A Mode C (altitude-reporting) 4096 transponder. A new Mode S transponder is, of course, also acceptable.

Having satisfied the equipment requirements, you also require prior authorization from ATC to operate in Class B airspace (an ATC clearance).

Part 91: ATC Transponder and Altitude Reporting Equipment and Use

A Mode C (or better) transponder is required to be carried by all aircraft operating:

• in Class A, Class B and Class C airspace, and, within the lateral boundaries of Class B and C airspace areas designated for an airport, up to 10,000 feet MSL;
• within 30 NM of an airport listed in section 1 of Appendix D of 14 CFR Part 91 (this list contains most major U.S. airports, for example Atlanta, Denver, Los Angeles, Miami, Minneapolis, both New York airports, St. Louis and both Washington airports), from the surface up to 10,000 feet MSL;
• in all airspace of the 48 contiguous states and the District of Columbia at and above 10,000 feet MSL (except at and below 2,500 feet AGL); and
• from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL within a 10 NM radius of any airport in 14 CFR 91 Appendix D, section 2 (none currently listed), except the airspace below 1,200 feet outside the lateral boundaries of the surface area of the airspace designated for that airport.

If your transponder fails in flight, and you are, or will be, operating in airspace where it is required equipment, you should notify ATC immediately. ATC may authorize deviation from the requirement to have an operating transponder to allow you to continue to the airport of your ultimate destination, including any intermediate stops, or to proceed to a place where suitable repairs can be made, or both. For a continuing waiver you should make a request to ATC at least one hour before the proposed flight.

Part 91: ATC Transponder Tests and Inspections

To be used, the transponder must have been tested and inspected satisfactorily within the preceding 24 calendar months.

Part 91: Altimeter System and Altitude Reporting Equipment Tests and Inspections

To operate under IFR each static pressure system, each altimeter instrument, and each automatic pressure altitude reporting system must have been tested and inspected satisfactorily within the preceding 24 calendar months. You may not operate under IFR at an altitude above the maximum at which the systems were tested.

Part 91: VOR Equipment Check for IFR Operations

To use the VOR under IFR, the aircraft’s VOR receiving equipment must either:

• be maintained, checked and inspected under an approved procedure; or
• have been operationally checked within the preceding 30 days, and found to be within the permissible limits. The accuracy for the VOR equipment is covered in Chapter 12 and is specified in this regulation.

Each person making an operational check of the VOR shall enter in the aircraft log, or other permanent record the:

• date;
• place;
• bearing error; and
• signature.

Part 91: Supplemental Oxygen

Crew Oxygen Requirements

Crew members are not required to use oxygen up to a cabin pressure altitude of 12,500 feet MSL (although you may). At cabin pressure altitudes above 12,500 feet up to and including 14,000 feet, the required minimum flight crew may fly without supplemental oxygen for up to 30 minutes only. However, supplemental oxygen must be provided and used for at least the time in excess of 30 minutes at these cabin pressure altitudes. At cabin pressure altitudes above 14,000 feet, the required minimum flight crew must be provided with and use supplemental oxygen during the entire time at those cabin altitudes.

Passenger Oxygen Requirements

At cabin pressure altitudes above 15,000 feet, each occupant (flight crew and passengers) must be provided with supplemental oxygen, although it is not required that the passengers actually use it.

Note. Commercial pilots operating under 14 CFR Part 135 and Part 121 have different oxygen requirements. Consult a current set of regulations for details.

Part 91: Emergency Locator Transmitters

Your aircraft should be equipped with an ELT. If it is battery powered, the batteries should be recharged or replaced after use for more than 1 cumulative hour, or if 50% of their useful life has expired. The ELT itself must be inspected every 12 calendar months.

Part 91: Operation under IFR in Controlled Airspace — Malfunction Reports

Any loss of navigation or air/ground communications capability must be reported immediately to ATC. This report should include:

• aircraft identification;
• equipment affected;
• any impairment of IFR capability; and
• the nature and extent of ATC assistance desired.

Part 91: Maintenance Required

Each owner or operator of an aircraft shall have the aircraft regularly inspected as prescribed, and have any discrepancies repaired as prescribed. Maintenance personnel shall make appropriate entries in the aircraft maintenance records indicating that the aircraft has been approved for return to service. Any inoperative instrument, or item of equipment permitted to be inoperative by 14 CFR 91, shall be repaired, replaced, removed, or inspected at the next required inspection. Inoperative instruments or equipment shall be placarded. The owner or operator must enter into the aircraft log the date, time, and the ID for the person who (1) updates any IFR (GPS) unit with a new or required database, or (2) changes the oil.

Part 91: Inoperative Instruments and Equipment

You may not take off in an aircraft with an inoperative instrument or inoperative equipment unless 14 CFR 91 permits it and unless the equipment is properly placarded as inoperative, any required maintenance is performed and that maintenance is recorded in the aircraft maintenance logs. In general, flight is not permitted if the inoperative instrument or equipment is part of the VFR-day required instruments and equipment or, for an IFR flight, if it is part of the IFR-equipped instruments and/or equipment. Under certain stringent conditions, the FAA may issue a special flight permit.

NTSB 830 Rules Pertaining to the Notification and Reporting of Aircraft Accidents or Incidents and Overdue Aircraft, and Preservation of Aircraft Wreckage, Mail, Cargo, and Records

The NTSB is the United States National Transportation Safety Board, which is charged with investigating aircraft accidents and incidents. The procedures a pilot should use to report such matters are specified in document NTSB 830. An accident involves the death or serious injury of a person, or substantial damage to an aircraft, between the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of flight and the time the person disembarks. An incident is an occurrence other than an accident, associated with the operation of an aircraft, which affects or could affect the safety of operations.

IFR Operations

Part 91: Preflight Action

The pilot needs to check the aircraft log to determine if the 100 hour/annual and other maintenance and inspections are current and complete. This includes ensuring the VOR and GPS database currency, and double-checking the PFD/MFD database currency with the start-up modes on. A pilot may fly with an expired database as long as he or she verifies that all intended NAVAIDs, information, etc., are unchanged.

A pilot-in-command shall, before beginning a flight, familiarize himself with all available information concerning that flight. This information must include:

• runway lengths, and takeoff and landing distance information, at airports of intended use, and the performance capabilities of the aircraft (such as takeoff and landing distances required); and
• for a flight under IFR or not in the vicinity of an airport:
  • weather reports and forecasts;
  • fuel requirements;
  • alternatives available if the planned flight cannot be completed;
  • any known traffic delays advised by ATC.

Part 91: Fuel Requirements for Flight in IFR Conditions

Remember the 1-2-3 rule for determining the need for an alternate.

The fuel required to operate in IFR conditions must be sufficient to:

1. complete the flight to the airport of first intended landing;

2. fly from that airport to the alternate airport (see below); and

3. fly after that for 45 minutes at normal cruising speed.

Item 2 does not apply if the first airport of intended landing has a standard instrument approach procedure, and for at least 1 hour before and 1 hour after the estimated time of arrival there, the weather reports and/or forecasts indicate:

• the ceiling will be at least 2,000 feet above the airport elevation; and
• visibility will be at least 3 statute miles.

This can be remembered as 1-2-3: ETA ±1 hour, 2,000 feet, 3 miles. Additional fuel should also be carried for any known traffic delays.

Part 91: Flight Plan — Information Required

These regulations list the usual information that you must include on a flight plan, but here we consider the information especially relevant to an IFR flight plan.

In the case of an IFR flight plan, you shall include an alternate airport unless, at the first airport of intended landing:

1. There is a prescribed standard instrument approach; and

2. For at least one hour before and one hour after the estimated time of arrival, the weather reports or forecasts or any combination of them indicate:

a. the ceiling will be at least 2,000 feet above the airport elevation; and

b. visibility will be at least 3 statute miles. (This is the 1-2-3 requirement to avoid naming an alternate.)

When looking for an alternate airport, remember: if no alternate minimums are specified and the airport supports a precision approach, you need a 600 feet ceiling and 2 miles visibility. If there’s only a nonprecision approach you need an 800 feet ceiling and 2 miles visibility. If there’s no approach, you need the airport to be VFT from your cruising altitude on down.

International flight plans, customs reporting and passenger manifests require additional planning and advance notice requirements.

Flight in the Washington, D.C. ADIZ also requires the pilot to complete the FAA’s online training course and possess the certificate of accomplishment.

To be suitable as an alternate, the current weather forecasts must indicate that, at the estimated time of arrival at the alternate airport, the ceiling and visibility will be at or above the following alternate airport weather minimums:

1. If an instrument approach procedure has been published for the proposed alternate airport:

a. use the alternate airport minimums specified in the instrument approach procedure for that alternate airport; or

b. if no alternate airport minimums are so specified, use the following minimums:

(i) precision approach procedure (ILS): ceiling 600 feet, visibility 2 statute miles;

(ii) nonprecision approach procedure: ceiling 800 feet, visibility 2 statute miles.

2. If no instrument approach procedure has been published for the proposed alternate airport, the ceiling and visibility minimums are those allowing descent from the minimum en route altitude (MEA), approach and landing, all under basic VFR.

Note. Alternate minimums listed above are those required to be met for you to select the airport as a suitable alternate airport. These alternate minimums are significantly better conditions than the landing minimums, so you should be able to approach and land at the alternate even if conditions deteriorate a little below the alternate minimums while you are en route. Having selected it as alternate, and then diverted to it, you may make an approach and landing at the alternate airport provided the landing minimums for the approach to be used are met.

Part 91: ATC Clearance and Flight Plan Required

To operate in controlled airspace under IFR, you must (1) file an IFR flight plan; and (2) receive an appropriate ATC clearance.

Part 91: Operations in Class A Airspace

To fly within Class A airspace:

• You must be instrument rated.
• The airplane must be equipped for IFR operations.
• You must operate under IFR at a specific flight level assigned by ATC (you need to submit an IFR flight plan and receive an ATC clearance).
• The airplane must be equipped with applicable equipment specified in 14 CFR 91 and capable of direct pilot/controller communication on the frequency specified by ATC; (capable of frequencies such as 135.725 MHz).

Part 91: Compliance with ATC Clearances and Instructions

No pilot-in-command may deviate from an ATC clearance unless an amended clearance is obtained, an emergency exists, or the deviation is in response to a traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS) resolution advisory. If you must deviate, notify ATC of that deviation as soon as possible. If you are given priority by ATC in an emergency, you should submit a detailed report of that emergency within 48 hours to the manager of that ATC facility, if requested by ATC.

Part 91: Altimeter Settings

You shall maintain cruising altitude or flight level, as the case may be, by reference to an altimeter with its pressure window set to:

• below 18,000 feet MSL: the current reported altimeter setting of a station along the route and within 100 NM of the aircraft (at altitudes); or
• at or above 18,000 feet MSL: 29.92 in. Hg (at flight levels).

Part 91: VFR Cruising Altitude or Flight Level

VFR cruising altitudes or flight levels, when more than 3,000 feet AGL, are:

• on a magnetic course of magnetic north to MC 179: odds + 500 feet; 3,500 feet MSL, 15,500 feet MSL, FL195, FL235; and
• on a magnetic course of MC 180 to MC 359: evens + 500 feet; 4,500 feet MSL, 16,500 feet MSL, FL185, FL285.

Although this regulation covers VFR levels even above FL290, it is a mandatory requirement in the USA to operate IFR in Class A airspace, which is from 18,000 feet MSL up to FL600. This regulation also applies to an IFR flight operating on a VFR-on-top clearance above a cloud layer.

Part 91: IFR Cruising Altitude or Flight Level

An IFR flight should plan to cruise:

• on a magnetic course of north to MC 179: odds; 5,000 feet MSL, 15,000 feet MSL, FL190, FL230; and
• on a magnetic course of MC 180 to MC 359: evens; 4,000 feet MSL, 16,000 feet MSL, FL180, FL280.

In controlled airspace, however, maintain the altitude or flight level assigned by ATC. If ATC assigns you a VFR-on-top clearance, you should maintain a VFR altitude or flight level. This regulation applies up to FL290.

Figure 24-4 VFR cruise levels “WEEO + 500” (West evens, East odds, plus 500 feet).

Figure 24-5 IFR cruise levels “WEEO” (West evens, East odds).

Part 91: Minimum Altitudes for IFR Operations

You may not operate under IFR below a prescribed minimum altitude. If both an MEA (minimum en route altitude) and a MOCA (minimum obstruction clearance altitude) are prescribed for a particular route or route segment, you may operate below the MEA down to, but not below, the MOCA within 22 NM (25 SM) of the VOR concerned, based on your reasonable estimate of that distance. The MEA assures obstruction clearance and NAVAID reception; MOCA is lower and only assures obstruction clearance, plus NAVAID reception within 22 NM (25 SM) of the aid.

If no applicable minimum altitude is prescribed, then you must maintain a clearance height above the highest obstacle, within a horizontal distance of 4 nautical miles of the course to be flown, of:

• 2,000 feet in designated mountainous areas (shown in 14 CFR Part 95: IFR Altitudes subpart B); otherwise
• 1,000 feet.

You should climb to a higher minimum IFR altitude immediately after passing the point beyond which that minimum altitude applies, except that, when ground obstructions intervene, the point beyond which the higher minimum altitude applies shall be crossed at the applicable MCA (minimum crossing altitude).

Figure 24-6 MEA and MOCA.

Figure 24-7 MCA.

Part 91: Course to be Flown (IFR)

Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, in controlled airspace, under IFR you should:

• fly along the centerline of an airway (±4 NM from airway centerline when within 51 NM of the VOR); or
• on any other route, directly between fixes.

You may, however, maneuver the aircraft to pass well clear of other traffic.

Part 91: Takeoff and Landing Under IFR — General

Instrument Approaches

When an instrument approach to a civil airport is necessary, you shall use a published standard instrument approach procedure (SIAP) unless otherwise authorized.

Authorized DH or MDA

The authorized decision altitude/decision height (DA/DH) or minimum descent altitude (MDA) is the higher of:

• the DA/DH or MDA prescribed for the pilot-in-command; and
• the DA/DH or MDA for which the aircraft is equipped.

Operation below DH or MDA

You may not operate the aircraft below the authorized DH or MDA unless:

• the aircraft is continuously in a position from which a safe landing may be made using normal maneuvers;
• the flight visibility is not less than the prescribed visibility in the standard IAP;
• one of the following visual references for the intended runway is distinctly visible and identifiable to the pilot (except for Category II or III approaches):
  • the approach light system;
  • the threshold, threshold markings or threshold lights, or the runway end identifier lights (REIL);
  • the visual approach slope indicator (VASI);
  • the touchdown zone, touchdown markings or touchdown zone lights;
  • the runway, runway markings or runway lights; or
• the aircraft has reached the specified visual descent point (VDP) for certain nonprecision IAPs.

Landing

You may not land when the flight visibility is less than the visibility prescribed in the standard IAP being used.

Part 91 operations permit flying the approach to minimums, even if the announced visibility is below minimums. This is unwise — not only for safety’s sake — but because if you do land, the FAA may initiate a violation for breaking minimums.

Missed Approaches

These IFR takeoff minimums do not apply in a legal sense to Part 91 operations (that is, private flights, flight instruction and airwork), however they are a very good guide for you to follow.
RVR 1600 = 1/4 SM
RVR 2400 = 1/2 SM
RVR 3200 = 5/8 SM
RVR 4000 = 3/4 SM
RVR 4500 = 7/8 SM
RVR 5000 = 1 SM
RVR 6000 = 11/4 SM

You shall immediately execute a missed approach if, at the DA/DH or below on a precision approach or below the MDA on a nonprecision approach, the above visibility requirements are not met, or if you lose sight of the airport environment (except in normal banked turns when maneuvering).

Takeoff Minimums

Takeoff weather minimums for each runway are published with the instrument approach charts and departure procedures, otherwise standard minimums apply. For one- and two-engine airplanes involved in 14 CFR Part 135 (Commuter and On-Demand) operations, the standard takeoff minimum is visibility 1 statute mile.

Comparable Values of Runway Visual Range (RVR) and Visibility

RVR 2,400 feet = ½ statute mile; RVR 5,000 feet = 1 statute mile.

Use of Radar During Instrument Approaches

ATC may issue radar vectors as course guidance through the segments of an approach procedure to the final approach fix (FAF). When you have received an approach clearance, you shall hold the last altitude assigned until established on a segment of a published route or the IAP, after which the published altitudes apply within each succeeding route or approach segment (unless a different altitude is assigned by ATC).

Limitations on Procedure Turns

In the case of a radar vector to a final approach course or fix, a timed-approach from a holding fix, or an approach for which the procedure specifies “NoPT” or when a barbed procedure turn is not depicted, you may not make a procedure turn unless cleared to do so by ATC.

Part 91: Flight Crew Members at Station

Each required crew member shall be at his or her station with seatbelts fastened during takeoff and landing and while en route, unless the absence is necessary in the performance of other operational duties or to satisfy physiological needs. If a shoulder harness is available, it shall be used during takeoff and landing.

Part 91: Use of Seatbelts and Safety Harnesses

You must brief each person on board how to fasten and unfasten their safety belt, and shoulder harness if installed, and ensure that they are used during takeoff and landing. This does not apply to children less than 2 years old and held by an adult, or to sport parachutists (who still must wear a safety belt even if they use the floor of the aircraft for a seat).

Part 91: Aircraft Speed

• Maximum 250 KIAS below 10,000 feet MSL, unless otherwise authorized by ATC in Class A or Class B airspace; (Class A is mainly above 18,000 feet MSL, so usually this is not a factor).
• Maximum 200 KIAS at or below 2,500 feet AGL within 4 NM of the primary airport of a Class C or Class D airspace area, unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC.
• Maximum 200 KIAS in the airspace underlying a Class B airspace area designated for an airport, or in a VFR corridor designated through such a Class B airspace area.

Part 91: Portable Electronic Devices

You may not allow the operation of any portable electronic device, other than those listed below, while operating under IFR:

• portable voice recorders;
• hearing aids;
• heart pacemakers;
• electric shavers; or
• any other portable electronic device that the operator of the aircraft has determined will not cause interference with the navigation or communication system of the aircraft. This determination may be made by the commercial operator, or by the pilot-in-command of a private IFR flight.

Part 91: IFR Radio Communications

You shall maintain a continuous radio watch on the appropriate frequency when flying IFR, and report by radio as soon as possible:

• time and altitude at each designated reporting point, except when under radar control;
• any unforecast weather conditions encountered; and
• any other information relating to the safety of the flight.

Keep track of all frequency assignments, in case you need to re-establish contact. Do not assume that you are in radio contact, as you can lose contact when in remote areas, low altitudes, or due to a misdialed frequency.

Part 91: IFR Operations — Two-Way Radio Communications Failure

If, when operating under IFR, two-way radio communications fail, you are required to take the following action:

• In VFR conditions: remain in VFR and land as soon as practicable.
• In IFR conditions:

  1.Route:

  a.Follow the route in the last ATC clearance received.

  b.If being radar vectored — follow the direct route from the point of radio failure to the fix, route or airway specified in the vector clearance.

  c.In the absence of an assigned route, follow the route that ATC has advised you to expect in a further clearance, otherwise the route filed in the flight plan.

  2.Altitude:

At the highest of the following altitudes or flight levels for the route segment being flown:

a. The altitude or flight level in the last ATC clearance received.

b. The minimum altitude for IFR operations.

c. The altitude or flight level that ATC has advised you to expect in a further clearance.

3. Leave Clearance Limit:

a. When the clearance limit is a fix from which the approach begins, commence descent or descent and approach as close as possible to the expect further clearance (EFC) time if one has been received or, if one has not been received, as close as possible to the estimated time of arrival (ETA) as calculated from the filed or amended (with ATC) estimated time en route.

b. If the clearance limit is not a fix from which an approach begins, leave the clearance limit at the EFC time if one has been received or, if none has been received, upon arrival over the clearance limit, and proceed to a fix from which an approach begins, and commence descent or descent and approach as close as possible to the ETA as calculated from the filed or amended (with ATC) estimated time en route (ETE).

Note. In cases of radio communications failure, make use of your transponder to alert radar controllers by squawking code 7600. If you divert to an alternate airport, and you have not filed route or altitude, you should fly the published airways and minimum en route altitude (MEA).

14 CFR Part 142

If the flight school at which you’re training uses flight simulators and flight training devices extensively for both pilot training and for checkrides, the odds are you are training at a school governed by 14 CFR Part 142 rules. Schools that operate under these rules can use simulators and flight training devices extensively in their syllabi, and can certify pilots for private, instrument and commercial ratings in less flight time than schools operating under 14 CFR Part 61 or 14 CFR Part 141. The rules are geared toward hi-tech pilot training programs using standardized training. Most Part 142 facilities train airline and corporate turbojet and turboprop pilots.

Review 24

Regulations Important to the Instrument Pilot

Responsibility and Authority of the Pilot-in-Command

1. Who is directly responsible for the operation of an aircraft?

2. Who is responsible to ensure that you are adequately qualified to commence an IFR flight and that the aircraft is serviceable for flight?

3. Who is responsible for ensuring that all items of equipment required for IFR flight have been tested, inspected, and found to be satisfactory, within the prescribed periods?

4. If an IFR flight plan is required to be filed, whose responsibility is that?

5. If you experience an in-flight emergency, can you deviate from 14 CFR to the extent required to meet the emergency?

Basic VFR Weather Minimums

6. You may not operate under basic VFR at an airport that is within Class E airspace beneath the ceiling when the ceiling is less than 1,000 feet AGL. True or false?

7. What are the VFR minimums for the following:

a. flight by day in Class G airspace that starts at the surface?

b. flight in Class G airspace below 10,000 feet but higher than 1,200 feet AGL (regardless of MSL altitude) by day?

c. flight in Class E airspace below 10,000 feet or less than 1,200 feet AGL (regardless of MSL altitude)?

d .flight in Class E airspace at or above 10,000 feet MSL, and more than 1,200 feet AGL?

e. flight in Class B airspace?

f. flight in Class C airspace?

g. flight in Class D airspace?

h. flight in Class G airspace at or above 10,000 feet MSL, and more than 1,200 feet AGL?

8. What are the VFR minimums for VFR-on-top flight in the following:

a. Class G airspace at 13,500 feet MSL (above 1,200 feet AGL) during daylight hours?

b. Class E airspace at 13,500 feet MSL (above 1,200 feet AGL) during daylight hours?

c. Class G airspace at 8,500 feet MSL (above 1,200 feet AGL) during daylight hours?

d. Class E airspace at 8,500 feet MSL dur­ing daylight hours?

9. What are the VFR minimums for a VFR-on-top flight at 10,500 feet MSL (above 1,200 feet AGL) during daylight hours? What classes of airspace do these apply to?

10. What are the VFR minimums for flight in Class G airspace 1,200 feet or less AGL at night?

11. What are the VFR minimums for flight in Class G airspace more than 1,200 feet AGL but less than 10,000 feet MSL at night?

Special VFR Weather Minimums

12. In what airspace may a special VFR clear­ance be issued by ATC?

13. Name the visibility and distance from clouds requirements for a special VFR clearance.

14. May a non-instrument-rated pilot fly spe­cial VFR at night?

Requirements for Certificates, Ratings, and Authorizations

15. Do you require an instrument rating to be pilot-in-command of an IFR flight?

16. Do you require an instrument rating to be pilot-in-command of an IFR flight in VFR conditions?

17. Do you require an instrument rating to be pilot-in-command of a flight in weather conditions less than the minimums pre­scribed for VFR flight?

18. Do you require an instrument rating to operate in Class A airspace?

Pilot Logbooks

19. Must you be flying in actual IFR conditions to log the time as instrument time?

20. Can the total flight time of a flight on an IFR flight plan be logged as instrument flight time?

21. Which part of the total flight time under an IFR flight plan can be logged as instrument flight time?

22. If you enter some flight time as being simulated instrument conditions, what additional qualifying information must also be entered?

23. Can an instrument flight instructor log the total flight time for an instrument training flight as instrument time?

24. Can an instrument flight instructor log the flight time during an instrument training flight that the student is under the hood in simulated instrument conditions as instrument time?

25. Can an instrument flight instructor log the flight time during an instrument training flight that the student is actually in instrument weather conditions as instrument time?

Recent Flight Experience — Pilot-in-Command

26. What is the minimum instrument time required within the last 6 months for you to be current for IFR?

27. How much flight time in actual IFR conditions is required to remain instrument current?

28. How many instrument approaches must have been flown in the previous 6 months for you to be current for IFR operations? How many of these instrument approaches have to have been in an aircraft?

29. What must you have accomplished in the last 6 months in order to remain current for IFR operations? If these conditions cannot be met, what other options are available to you?

30. After your recent IFR experience lapses, how much time do you have before you must pass an instrument proficiency check to act as pilot-in-command under IFR?

31. How long do you remain current for IFR flight after successfully completing an instrument proficiency check, even if no further IFR flights are made?

32. Do you require any recent IFR experience to submit yourself to an instrument proficiency check with an FAA inspector, a designated examiner, or a certificated instrument flight instructor?

33. Your recent IFR experience expires on June 1 of this year. What is the latest date that you can meet the IFR recent experience requirement without having to take an instrument proficiency check?

34. Your present instrument experience within the last 6 months is:

• in a simulator: 3 hours and 1 instrument approach; and
• in an airplane: 3 hours and 1 instrument approach.

What additional IFR experience do you require to meet the recent IFR requirements to act as pilot-in-command under IFR?

Flight Instruction — Simulated Instrument Flight and Certain Flight Tests

35. For you to practice simulated IFR flight under the hood in VFR conditions, what minimum requirements must be met?

36. Define the qualifications that your safety pilot must possess.

Airplane Rating — Aeronautical Experience

37. As a commercial pilot, do you require an instrument rating to carry passengers for hire at night?

38. As a commercial pilot, do you require an instrument rating to carry passengers for hire on a cross-country flight of 45 NM by day?

39. As a commercial pilot, do you require an instrument rating to carry passengers for hire on a cross-country flight of 45 NM by night?

40. As a commercial pilot, do you require an instrument rating to carry passengers for hire on a cross-country flight of 73 NM by day?

Civil Aircraft Airworthiness

41. Who is responsible for determining if an aircraft is in a condition safe for flight?

42. If an unairworthy mechanical, structural, or electrical condition occurs in flight, you should:

a. continue the flight normally to the destination.

b. discontinue the flight.

Inspections

43. One of three inspections must be carried out within a specified time frame to permit normal operations for hire. Name all three inspections.

Certifications Required

44. Must the airworthiness certificate be carried within the aircraft?

45. Must the registration certificate be carried within the aircraft?

Civil Aircraft Flight Manual, Marking, and Placard Requirements

46. Name the documents required to be carried in an aircraft.

Instrument and Equipment Requirements

47. If the clock does not have a digital presentation, is a sweep second hand a requirement for IFR flight?

48. Is a gyroscopic direction indicator required for operations under IFR?

49. Is a dual VOR system required for operations under IFR?

50. Is DME required for flight at and above 24,000 feet MSL?

51. For IFR flight, do you require navigation equipment appropriate to the ground facilities to be used?

Operations in Class B Airspace

52. Do you require an operable VOR to fly IFR in a Class B airspace area?

53. Do you require an operable ADF to fly IFR in a Class B airspace area?

54. Do you require two-way radio communications to fly in a Class B airspace area?

55. Do you require an altitude-reporting transponder to fly in a Class B airspace area?

56. What is the altitude-reporting capability on a transponder known as?

57. Is an ATC clearance required to fly in a Class B airspace area?

ATC Transponder and Altitude Reporting Equipment and Use

58. When is an operable coded transponder equipped with Mode C capability required?

59. Is an operable coded transponder equipped with Mode C capability required in Class A or B airspace?

60. Is an operable coded transponder equipped with Mode C capability required in a Class C or D airspace?

61. Is an operable coded transponder equipped with Mode C capability required within 30 NM of the primary airport of a Class B airspace area?

62. Your transponder fails when you are flying in a Class B airspace area. Can ATC allow you to continue without your transponder functioning?

63. If your transponder is inoperative and you wish to fly into Class B airspace, how long before the proposed flight should you request a waiver from the transponder requirement?

ATC Transponder Tests and Inspections

64. To be used, the ATC transponder must have been satisfactorily tested and inspected within what time period?

Altimeter System and Altitude Reporting Equipment Tests and Inspections

65. An aircraft altimeter system test and inspection must be completed within what time period?

66. Your aircraft had the static pressure system and altimeter tested and inspected on September 13 of this year, and was found to comply with FAA standards. These systems must be reinspected and approved for use in controlled airspace under IFR by which date and how many years later?

67. The altitude-reporting system of the transponder must be checked within what time period?

VOR Equipment Check for IFR Operations

68. To operate under IFR, an operational check of the aircraft VOR equipment must have been accomplished within what time period?

69. When making an airborne check of a dual VOR system, what is the maximum tolerance between the two indicators when set to identical radials of a VOR?

70. What four items should be entered in the aircraft log, or other permanent record, by each person who carries out the VOR operational check?

71. What is the maximum tolerance allowed for an operational VOR equipment check when using a VOT?

Supplemental Oxygen

72. As pilot of an unpressurized airplane, are you required to use supplemental oxygen cruising at 12,000 feet?

73. As pilot of an unpressurized airplane, are you required to use supplemental oxygen cruising at 12,500 feet?

74. As pilot of an unpressurized airplane, are you required to use supplemental oxygen cruising at 13,000 feet?

75. What is the maximum cabin pressure altitude at which you can fly for longer than 30 minutes without using supplemental oxygen?

76. As pilot of an unpressurized airplane operating above 12,500 feet MSL, but not more than 14,000 feet MSL, for a period of 1 hour 40 minutes, for what period are you required to use supplemental oxygen?

77. As pilot of an unpressurized airplane operating above 15,000 feet MSL for a period of 1 hour 40 minutes, for what period are you required to use supplemental oxygen?

78. Crew must use oxygen for the whole time above what cabin pressure altitude?

79. Passengers must be provided with oxygen for flight above what cabin pressure altitude?

80. You are flying a pressurized airplane at FL310 (31,000 feet). The cabin is pressurized to 8,500 feet. Must you wear your oxygen mask?

81. Cruising at FL 310, your airplane experiences a depressurization. You put your oxygen mask on and commence a rapid descent to a lower altitude. In which of the following situations are you permitted to remove your oxygen mask to improve voice communications?

a. You level off at 16,000 feet MSL.

b. You level off at 15,000 feet MSL.

c. You level off at 14,000 feet MSL.

d. You level off at 12,500 feet MSL.

e. You level off at 16,000 feet MSL.

Emergency Locator Transmitters

82. How often must the batteries of an ELT be replaced or recharged?

Operation under IFR in Controlled Airspace — Malfunction Reports

83. Are you required to report the malfunction of your VOR receiver to ATC if you are operating on an IFR flight plan?

Maintenance Required

84. Do maintenance personnel need to make an entry in the aircraft maintenance records to indicate that an aircraft is approved for return to service following the replacement of a faulty attitude indicator?

85. Should a known inoperative ADF be placarded?

Inoperative Instruments and Equipment

86. When taxiing for takeoff prior to an IFR flight, you notice that the turn coordinator is not functioning. Is a takeoff permitted?

87. In your preflight inspection prior to an IFR flight, you notice that the VSI has been placarded as inoperative by the maintenance personnel. Is a takeoff permitted?

88. In your preflight inspection prior to an IFR flight, you notice that the only VOR in the aircraft has been placarded as inoperative by the maintenance personnel. Is a takeoff permitted without further reference to the FAA?

NTSB 830

89. Which publication covers the procedures required for aircraft accident and incident reporting responsibilities for pilots?

Preflight Action

90. May you depart on a cross-country flight in VFR conditions to an airport where runway lengths cannot be determined?

91. May you depart on a cross-country flight in IFR conditions to an airport where runway lengths cannot be determined?

92. May you depart on a flight if unaware of the performance capabilities of the aircraft?

93. What are some of the important performance capabilities of your airplane that you should be familiar with before you depart on a flight?

94. List six items you must familiarize yourself with prior to an IFR flight.

Fuel Requirements for Flight in IFR Conditions

95. What minimum conditions must exist at the destination airport to avoid listing an alternate airport on an IFR flight plan when a standard instrument approach is available?

96. Is an alternate required for a destination airport which has with an instrument approach procedure, and which has a ceiling forecast of 1,500 feet, and a forecast visibility of 3 miles? Justify your answer.

97. If conditions requiring an alternate are forecast to improve above alternate conditions 45 minutes prior to your ETA, do you need to carry an alternate?

98. If excellent weather conditions at your destination are forecast to deteriorate below alternate minimums 55 minutes after your ETA, do you need to carry an alternate?

99. Is an alternate required for a destination airport served by an instrument approach with a ceiling forecast of 2,500 feet, and a forecast visibility of 3 miles? Justify your answer.

100. Is an alternate required for a destination airport not served by an instrument approach with a ceiling forecast of 2,500 feet, and a forecast visibility of 3 miles? Justify your answer.

101. Your destination airport has a ceiling forecast of 2,000 feet and forecast visibility of 3 miles. Is an alternate required? Justify your answer.

102. The destination airport has a ceiling forecast of 1,500 feet, and a forecast visibility in excess of 3 miles. Is an alternate required? What minimum fuel must you carry?

103. The destination airport has a ceiling forecast of 3,000 feet, and a forecast visibility in excess of 3 miles. Is an alternate required? What minimum fuel must you carry?

104. There are known traffic delays of 30 minutes. Should you carry 30 minutes additional fuel?

105. The weather at the destination airport is currently good, but the ceiling is forecast to drop to 1,500 feet approximately 50 minutes after your estimated time of arrival. Is an alternate required?

106. The weather at the destination airport is currently good, but the ceiling is forecast to drop to 1,500 feet approximately one hour after your ETA. Is an alternate required?

107. The weather at the destination airport is currently good, but the ceiling is forecast to drop to 1,500 feet approximately 90 minutes after your estimated time of arrival. Is an alternate required?

108. The weather at your destination airport is ceiling 1,500 feet, visibility 2 miles but is forecast to improve to ceiling 2,500 feet, visibility 4 miles approx 75 minutes after your ETA. Is an alternate required?

109. If the weather at your destination airport is currently ceiling 1,500 feet, visibility 2 miles, but is forecast to improve to ceiling 2,500 feet, visibility 4 miles approximately 45 minutes before your estimated time of arrival, is an alternate required?

Flight Plan — Information Required

110. What are the alternate minimums that must be forecast at the proposed alternate airport in the following situations:

a. if it has only a nonprecision approach procedure?

b. if it has a precision approach procedure?

c. if it has only a VOR approach procedure?

d. if it has published VOR and ILS approach procedures?

111. The alternate minimums apply to:

a. the ETA at the alternate airport.

b. the ETA ±1 hour at the alternate airport.

112. What needs to be indicated in the current weather forecast for an airport without an authorized instrument approach procedure for that airport to be included on an IFR flight plan as an alternate?

113. You have diverted to the alternate airport. When making an approach to land at this airport, which minimums are you restricted to?

ATC Clearance and Flight Plan Required

114. Do you need to file a flight plan to operate in controlled airspace (Class A–E) under IFR?

115. Do you need ATC clearance to operate in controlled airspace (Class A–E) under IFR?

116. Do you need to file an IFR plan to operate in instrument conditions (IMC) in controlled airspace?

117. Do you need to file an IFR plan to operate in IMC in Class G airspace?

118. Do you need to have an instrument rating to operate as pilot-in-command in IMC in Class G airspace?

119. When departing in IMC conditions from an airport located in Class G airspace, must you file a flight plan and receive an ATC clearance before takeoff?

120. When departing in IMC conditions from an airport located in Class G airspace, must you file a flight plan and receive an ATC clearance before entering IFR conditions?

121. When departing in IMC conditions from an airport located in Class G airspace, must you file a flight plan and receive an ATC clearance before arriving at the en route portion of the flight?

122. When departing in IMC conditions from an airport located in Class G airspace, must you file a flight plan and receive an ATC clearance before entering controlled airspace?

123. When departing in IMC conditions from an airport located in Class G airspace, you must file a flight plan and receive an ATC clearance before which of the following?

a. takeoff.

b. entering IFR conditions.

c. entering controlled airspace.

d. arriving at the en route portion of the flight.

Operations in Class A Airspace

124. Do you need to file an IFR plan if you intend to operate in Class A airspace?

125. At what altitude does the Class A airspace area begin?

126. Having filed an IFR plan, do you also require an ATC clearance to operate in Class A airspace?

127. Will the ATC clearance to operate in Class A airspace contain an assigned flight level?

128. When must a flight plan be filed and a clearance received for an aircraft to be permitted to operate in controlled airspace under IFR?

Compliance with ATC Clearances and Instructions

129. While on an IFR flight, you have an emergency that causes you to deviate from your ATC clearance. What action must be taken?

130. You experience a distress condition, such as mechanical problems. What actions should you take?

131. When may ATC request a detailed report of an emergency, even though a rule has not been violated?

Altimeter Settings

132. When should the pressure window of the altimeter be set to the current reported altimeter setting?

133. The current reported altimeter setting of a station along the route must be within how many nautical miles of the aircraft (at altitudes)?

VFR and IFR Cruising Level

134. What is the next higher appropriate cruising altitude or flight level to 5,000 feet MSL for a VFR flight along an airway with magnetic course MC 090?

135. What is the next higher appropriate cruising altitude or flight level to 5,000 feet MSL for an IFR flight along an airway with magnetic course MC 090?

136. What is the next higher appropriate cruising altitude or flight level to 5,000 feet MSL for an IFR flight along an airway with magnetic course MC 180?

137. What is the next higher appropriate cruising altitude or flight level to 5,000 feet MSL for a VFR flight along an airway with magnetic course MC 180?

138. What is the next higher appropriate cruising altitude or flight level to 18,000 feet MSL for an IFR flight along an airway with magnetic course MC 330?

139. What is the next higher appropriate cruising altitude or flight level to 5,000 feet MSL for an IFR flight with a VFR-on-top clearance above a cloud layer with tops at 7,000 feet along an airway with magnetic course MC 135?

Minimum Altitudes for IFR Operations

140. What does MEA stand for?

141. Does the MEA ensure obstruction clearance?

142. Does the MEA ensure radio navigation aid reception?

143. What does MOCA stand for?

144. Does the MOCA ensure obstruction clearance?

145. Does the MOCA ensure radio navigation aid reception?

146. Is the MOCA higher than the MEA?

147. What does MCA stand for?

148. On a particular route segment, the MEA is 7,000 feet, and on the next route segment, after passing an intersection, it is 9,500 feet. When is the latest you may start your climb if you are initially cruising at 7,000 feet and the airplane can achieve a climb of 500 fpm? No MCA is noted at the intersection.

149. On a particular route segment, the MEA is 6,000 feet, and on the next route segment, after passing an intersection, it is 12,000 feet. When is the latest you may start your climb if you are initially cruising at 7,000 feet and the airplane can achieve a climb of 500 fpm? An MCA of 8,500 feet is noted at the intersection for this route.

150. If no applicable minimum altitude is prescribed for your route, which is in a designated mountainous area, what clearance should you plan to maintain?

151. If no applicable minimum altitude is prescribed for your route, which is not in a designated mountainous area, what clearance height should you plan to maintain?

Course To Be Flown (IFR)

152. Should you plan to fly directly between fixes on an IFR flight?

Takeoff and Landing under IFR — General

153. May you continue with an approach to land if an excessive rate of descent to the runway is required?

154. May you continue with an approach to land if a steep turn is required to align the aircraft with the runway?

155. May you continue to maneuver below the MDA for a landing if you lose sight of the airport environment behind a cloud bank?

156. What is the landing minimum specified as?

157. If you decide to discontinue an approach at or below the DH/DA of a precision approach, or below the MDA of a nonprecision approach, what procedure should you follow?

158. What are the standard takeoff minimums for a one- or two-engine airplane carrying people for 14 CFR Part 135 operations? What are the standard takeoff minimums for flights operated under Part 91?

159. What is the equivalent visibility in statute miles for RVR 2,400 feet?

160. What is the equivalent visibility in statute miles for RVR 5,000 feet?

Flight Crew Members at Station

161. Should you wear a shoulder harness, if available, during takeoff and landing?

162. Must you wear a shoulder harness, if available, en route?

163. Should you wear your seatbelt en route?

164. In a multi-crew airplane, is it permitted for one pilot to leave their station en route?

Use of Seatbelts and Safety Harnesses

165. Is a one-year-old child permitted to be held by an adult during takeoff and landing?

Aircraft Speed

166. What is the maximum speed below 10,000 feet MSL, in any airspace class? Does ATC have the authority to override this requirement in Class B airspace?

167. What is the maximum speed at or below 2,500 feet AGL within 4 NM of the primary airport of a Class C or D airspace area?

168. What is the maximum speed in the airspace underlying Class B airspace that is designated for an airport?

169. What is the maximum speed in a VFR corridor through Class B airspace?

Portable Electronic Devices

170. Can a portable voice recorder be used when operating under IFR?

171. As pilot-in-command of a private IFR flight, are you permitted to determine if any other portable electronic device may be used in flight?

IFR Radio Communications

172. Are you required to make a radio call at a compulsory position reporting point designated on your chart when you are under radar control?

173. Are you required to make a radio call at a compulsory position reporting point designated on your chart when you are not under radar control?

174. Are you required to report any unforecast weather encountered, such as a thunderstorm, by radio?

IFR Operations — Two-way Radio Communications Failure

175. What action should you take if you experience two-way radio communications failure in VFR conditions?

176. You enter a holding pattern at a fix, which is not the approach fix, and receive an EFC time of 1620Z. At 1610Z you experience a complete two-way communications failure. What actions should you take?

177. If you are in IFR weather conditions and experience a two-way radio communications failure, what action can you take with the transponder to alert ATC. What altitude and route should you follow?